The Ilattischerif of October 23. 1802

There were many, too, who had rendered homage ‘(jo .to Joseph II., or had borne arms under him.

But it also occurred to the Servians that Austria had never retained the possessions she acquired, but had alwa}-s given back both land and people to the Turks. Moreover, Austria was now directing all her attention to the West ; concentrating her entire strength for a new conflict with the French empire: which, both in Italy and Germany, must be a matter of life and death.

On the other hand, the name of Russia had, during the last century, acquired a high reputation amongst all the followers of the Greek church ; but the most important point was that, for a length of time, she had stood in the same relation to Moldavia and TVallachia as that which Servia now sought for herself.

In repeated conventions with the Porte, Russia had stipulated for freedom of religiou_and moderate taxation for these two principalities. The Ilattischerif of October 23. 1802, was still fresh in their recollection; in which the Porte granted to the governments of those countries a greater degree of .stability, pledged itself not to remove the reigning prince without previous reference to Russia, and not to allow any Turks, except merchants and traders, to enter either territory. A short time previously, the new prince had, with the assistance of Russia, obtained a grant of freedom from taxes, in consideration of the devastations caused by Passwan Oglu.

Services so important, rendered at that period to their neighbours, induced the Servians, after some consideration, to decide upon addressing themselves tiiP.ussia.__. In August, 1804, Prota Nenadowitscli, John—Proti.ts.ch, and Peter Tschardaklia, were de-spatched to St. Petersburg- In February, 1805, they returned with an answer which was, upon the whole, very favourable. The Russian government called upon the Servians first to prefer their requests at Constantinople, and promised to promote their fulfilment there.

The Servians, having now the promise of support from a great Christian power, were inspired with new confidence in their cause, and the demands which they made were of an important character.

Already had they been subjected to the greatest misery

The offices of Subasches and Tschitluksahibis were abolished : the Pacha promised that only once a year should the land-owner come into the country to collect his revenues ; and that no other Turk should enter it, even in the event of a war with Servia, but should proceed by another route. Hostages were given on botli sides. The inhabitants agreed to pay Poresa and Harudsch; in consideration of which the Pacha allowed them to judge and govern themselves in the greatest as well as in the least concerns. Such was the order of things established in Jadar and Radjewina.

To some it might appear that the Servians in the Pachalic of Belgrade should have been satisfied with similar arrangements.

They did not think so; and no one can be surprised at this.

In a very different manner from the people of Jadar and Radjewina, and with far greater danger and difficulty, had the Servians of Belgrade carried through their insurrection. And much more resulted from it. Already had they been subjected to the greatest misery, through the vacillation of the supreme authority in suffering the return of the Janissaries whom they had expelled. Who, therefore, could give them assurance that the fiction by which they were opposed should not, a second time, obtain the upper hand, through the continued want of resolution in the Grand Signior, and thus deprive them of all the advantages they had won ?

Certainly no one can blame them for seeking a better security for the future.

It was now that a plan occurred to them which proved to be of the greatest importance, not only in itself, but from the manner in which it was executed. This was to solicit the intervention of a Christian power in their favour.

For some time they were unable to decide whether that power should be Austria or Russia.

Many of their kindred tribes dwelt under Austrian influence. Austria had, in former times, always been the moving cause of the Servian insurrections: had once already ruled these lands; and it was to Austria that, in the last war, the Servians were indebted for_tlieir skill in warfare.

An influential old man of Swornik

It may now be asked, how it happened, that the Porte was induced, not only to come to a friendly understanding with Passwan Oglu, but even to accept an arrangement proposed in favour of the Janissaries who had been driven from Belgrade. The truth is, the pride of the Mussulmans revolted at the idea that old Moslems of the True Faith should be banished from a Pachalic, whilst the Christian subjects therein were allowed to rise in importance: indeed, the Mufti gave it as his opinion tbit it was against the law to drive the Faithful from their possessions in favour of the Raja.

Upon this the Divan ordered the Pacha to re-admit the Janissaries; though they had been exiled by a firman, and had joined a rebel in open insurrec-tion. Uadschi Mustafa would have placed himself in opposition to his legitimate government, and exposed himself to severe punishment, had lie resisted the order : the Janissaries accordingly returned.

We may easily anticipate the consequences of this measure: it proved the origin of much mischief.

At first the Janissaries did not press the Pacha for the restoration of their property; nor did they threaten him with violence; and they were satisfied with appointments in the Custom Houses or about the Court. Soon, however, they began to act as in former times; and as might have been expected, the Raja were the first to be made sensible of the change.

In Swileuwa, in the district of Schabaz, lived a man of irreproachable character, named Ranko, Grand Knes of his Kneshina. At a time when the their ranks into a neighbouring hut, where his back might be protected from his assailants. Covered with wounds when he reached the hut, lie yet managed to clear it of its occupants; and then, sitting down, defended himself to the last. He died from loss of blood, —the first victim of internal discord — a hero still remembered with admiration by his countrymen.

Kjurtschia’s enterprise brought death upon himself, but it procured for the district a government conformable to the laws.

An influential old man of Swornik, Mchcmet Kapetan, who had ever been adverse to the innovations of Alibeg, and who, though nearly seventy years of age, was still vigorous and inclined to war, now appeared amongst the Servians, declaring himself ready, with his five sons, to go against the Turks. With his assistance — though he perceived that the people followed him with reluctance — and through the exertions of the native chiefs, Antonie Bogitschewitsch and Jephtiini Sawitseh, these districts succeeded in obtaining peace.

The country flourished, and became rich

At different times he was master of Czcrnetz, Nicopel, and Krajowa; and, “when now and then lie lost either of those places, it was only through the greatest efforts of the Turks and YCallachians. Many people fled from the Lesser AYallachia to Transylvania : others, suspected of being in alliance with him, were punished for the crime.* In Bulgaria, every thing got into confusion, and general animosity was excited. At length the Porte resolved to make peace, and actually sent Passwan the three horse-tails! With these occurrences, the fate of Servia was in many ways connected.

Ebu Bekir, and his successor Iladsclii Mustafa, who kept the Janissaries at a distance, administered the affairs of the country in a manner directly opposed to their system of violence. The Raja dwelt in peace; happy at length to be ruled by mild and ecpiitable laws. The country flourished, and became rich — by the same means that prevailed in England and in Germany before the clearing away of the large forests—by the breeding of swine. It has been remarked that Servia gained annually 1,300,000 florins, (130,000/. sterling) by its commerce with Austria alone. Hadschi Mustafa evinced so much jealous care of the country that he has been called Srpska Maika, the Servian Mother.

It was no disparagement to any one to have served in the Free Corps under the Emperor of Austria; and Alexa Ncnadowitsch, who had held the rank of officer therein, was made Grand Knes. When Passwan Oglu, urged perhaps by the Janissaries, began to threaten Servia, he took Ivladowo, and endeavoured to make himself master of the island of Poretsch. In this emergency, Hadschi Mustafa did not hesitate to call the Servians themselves to arms ; he represented to them that it would be much better to sell part of their cattle, and provide themselves with arms out of the proceeds, than be stripped of every thing by the enemy. Many arms had remained in the country since the last war; and the people now gladly brought them forth.

The spirit which had been aroused under Austria, acquired renewed vigour under the command of a Turkish Pacha; and the Ivneses themselves equipped a force, whose Bim- bascha, Stanko Arambaschitsch, the son of a robber- chief, established a name for himself. Supported by the Turks, but by no means under their control, the Servians were again victorious. Stanko did not give precedence to the Turkish leaders of this army; and by prompt retaliation he avenged the act of one of them, who had cut down a prisoner. The Pachas and the country were united: for their common interest was at stake; and Pass- wan Oglu and his allies, the Janissaries, were successfully opposed.

Passwan Oedu was in strict alliance with them

After having for some time suffered a Pacha to be associated with him in the province, he at length expelled his superior, and demanded the three horse-tails for himself. He maintained 10,000 of the Krdschalies with him in AYiddin.

At the same time it must be allowed, that, in demanding the restoration of his hereditary fiefs, lie had stood forward as the opponent of all innovations. lie received the Janissaries, who were driven out of Scrvia : had his name entered in their lists ; and made their cause his own.

Perhaps his motive for this conduct might be traced to the fact, that the commander of the Janissaries at AYiddin held the highest rank amongst all their Serhad-Agas; in remembrance of Tiirnadschi-Baschi; whom, in former times, Bajazet I. had installed there with the G8th Orta of the Dschcmaat. This name was thenceforth retained as an hereditary title.

Moreover, a good opportunity was offered to an ambitious leader, by the spirit of opposition to the new regulations, which were soon regarded, by the Turkish population, as contrary to religion : thus it became necessary to prove, by a legal document, that the use of bayonets and light artillery was not contrary to the Koran.

Olivier, who then lived at Constantinople, assures us that the Janissaries of that city had formally refused to take the field against Passwan

And it was in vain that the Porte, in 1798, sent another army, composed of European and Asiatic troops, against him. He is reported to have said that, he might have raised 100,000 men, but preferred to conquer them with 10,000. And the smaller number was undoubtedly to his advantage. Amongst the Pachas advancing against him, there was little concord ; and he could avail himself of a favourable moment with unimpaired power. On one occasion, when a long continued fall of rain had reduced his opponents, who were encamped under temporary barracks and tents, to a very distressed state, the Krdschalies, who had remained fresh and vigorous in a well-provided town, sallied out and put the enfeebled enemy to flight. From that time Passwan Oglu was exceedingly dreaded by his neighbours far and near.

The possessions of the Janissaries

The Spahis again enjoyed the benefit of their tithes, and of their Glawnitza; and the Servians who had emigrated now resumed their former property, and could more confidently reckon on the performance of the stipulations which had been made in their favour. The possessions of the Janissaries, on the other hand, were considered as forfeited to the crown; and they themselves sought refuge in the neighbouring districts.

It could not be otherwise: only by artifice and bloodshed could the proposed measures be carried out!

It excites less surprise, then, to find that the parties who had been thus chastised, resisted ; and were supported by those who participated in their claims. The revolt of Passwan Oglu, at Widdin, which occurred at that time, proved of especial advantage to the Janissaries: though it cannot be proved with certainty that his revolt originated with them.

It appears that Osman Passwan Oglu first distinguished himself at the head of a troop of volunteers, in the war of 1788 ; and he afterwards took forcible possession of his hereditary estates, from which his father had been expelled.

There were, besides, other warriors with whom he allied himself: bands of soldiers called Krdscha- lies, who, after the peace, had been dismissed from the service of the Porte, but had no wish on that account to relinquish the trade of war. In Macedonia and Bulgaria, they rendered the country unsafe ; readily offering their services on every occasion when a pacha was engaged in dispute with the Grand Signior, or a province with its pacha; or, failing such occupation, they would plunder on their own account, and levy contributions. When they had destroyed Moscopolis (or Boscopolis), one of the principal towns of Macedonia, the other towns hastened to make terms with them by paying a sort of tribute.

It was their pride to ride along on stately horses, with trappings of gold and silver, and bearing costly arms. In their train were female slaves, Gjuwendi, in male attire, AVIIO not only served to amuse them in their hours of ease, with singing and dancing, but also followed them to battle, for the purpose of holding their horses when they fought on foot. As these troops had never any religions worship, they received all coiners, whether Christians or Mahometans. Like other soldiers, they were under the regular command of their bimbaschas, leaders of a thousand, and buljukbaschas, ollicers of inferior rank. To any one who aimed at establishing his power by force of arms they were welcome ; and he to them.

It was only as he was ascending

Ebu Bekir, the new Pacha appointed to Belgrade, was provided with a firman, which commanded the Janissaries to quit Belgrade, and the entire Pachalic. However, on the very first occasion that offered for enforcing it, they maintained their ground so deterininedly, that this order could he executed only hy stratagem and violence. Before Ebu Bekir could venture even to publish the firman, it was necessary for him to get rid of their most powerful Chief.

When he arrived on the frontier of the Pachalic, at Nisch, the Spahis hastened to welcome him ; the other former proprietors of the country also appeared there, and Peli-Achmet amongst them. But the latter was surrounded by so numerous a suite, that they dared not at that time seize him : it was only as he was ascending the stairs to a second audience, with but few attendants, that they ventured to attack him ; and even then only as base assassins : a servant of the Pacha’s who lay concealed, shot him from behind. The firman was then immediately published and enforced.

The Spahis again enjoyed the benefit of their tithes, and of their Glawnitza; and the Servians who had emigrated now resumed their former property, and could more confidently reckon on the performance of the stipulations which had been made in their favour. The possessions of the Janissaries, on the other hand, were considered as forfeited to the crown; and they themselves sought refuge in the neighbouring districts.

It could not be otherwise: only by artifice and bloodshed could the proposed measures be carried out!

It excites less surprise, then, to find that the parties who had been thus chastised, resisted ; and were supported by those who participated in their claims. The revolt of Passwan Oglu, at Widdin, which occurred at that time, proved of especial advantage to the Janissaries: though it cannot be proved with certainty that his revolt originated with them.

It appears that Osman Passwan Oglu first distinguished himself at the head of a troop of volunteers, in the war of 1788 ; and he afterwards took forcible possession of his hereditary estates, from which his father had been expelled.

Agas rather than with the Pachas

The Janissaries of Belgrade.  The Balds.  Ebu-Bekir, Pacha of Belgrade  Assassination of the Ago, Deli Achmet.  Bise of Osman Passman Oglu.  The Krds- ehalics.Alexa Nenadomitseh, Grand Knes of Servia.

Pacha Iladschi Mustafa.  Return of the Janissaries to Belgrade.  Murder of the Knes, Ranko.  Death of the Pacha.  The Dahis.  Tyranny of the Janissaries.

Unsuccessful Revolt.Address of the Servian Kneses to the Grand Signior.  Threats of the Sultan against the Dahis.  Horrible Slaughter of the Servians by the Dahis.

Of all the Janissaries of the Empire, none were more opposed to the Sultan than those at Belgrade.

Besides manifold other abuses which prevailed here as much as anywhere, the Janissaries had entered into a sort of conflict with the rest of the Turkish population, the Pachas, and the Spahis; and it appeared as though they would inevitably acquire, by violent means, a tyrannical dominion over the Country, to the exclusion of others of their countrymen. Already did their commanders designate themselves Dahis, after the example of the Deys of Barbary; who had in like manner, in a contest with the Pachas, been raised to power from amongst the mutinous troops: such had also been the case more recently at Tripoli.

By the side of the Agas of the Janissariessuch as Achmet, who, on account of his courage, was surnamed Deli-Achmet, and who commanded a force of 1000 mena Pacha appeared insignificant; and it is known that the Emperor Joseph pre-ferred entering into arrangements with the Agas rather than with the Pachas. Shortly before the commencement of the war, Mahomet Ali Seimo- witsch and fourteen other Spahis were murdered by the Janissaries of Achmet, and no one had ven-tured to call him to account for the act; indeed, notwithstanding this, he made his appearance at Ivjupria, in the Turkish army destined for the deliverance of Belgrade. Nevertheless, Belgrade was neither delivered by his assistance, nor defended by his comrades.

After it had been given back to the Turks, through the intervention of the European Powers, the Sultan determined, in this town at least, to rid himself of these troublesome claimants to a share in his power.

The Divan now resembled in form an European Privy Council of state

The power of the Vizier had already been restrained. The Divan now resembled in form an European Privy Council of state: it consisted of twelve superior officers, whom the Grand Vizier was bound to consult on all important questions. One member of the Divan was especially appointed to collect certain indirect imposts, to be applied to the maintenance of the newly-raised troops; whose number was gradually increased by cavalry, and who formed altogether a considerable body.

It is unnecessary to speak further concerning the progress of these changes. In course of time, we may probably be enabled to obtain a knowledge of the work of Nuri, the historiographer of the Empire, during those years in which, according to all accounts, the new regulations (Nizami, Dschedid), were fully discussed. AVe shall then sec the connexion of events more distinctly than it is at present possible to do, judging merely from the accounts of European travellers and ambassadors.

It will here suffice to remark, how powerfully the exclusively Ottoman part of the Turkish Empire, the ruling body of religious warriors, was excited from the very commencement of his reign, by the projects of Selim III., occasioned by the results of the last war.

The spirit of reform with which the eighteenth century was inspired, affected even Turkey.

In this respect, Selim HI. may be compared with princes such as Gustavus III., Clement XIV., and Joseph II., or with statesmen like Pombal, Aranda, and Struensee: all more or less liis con-temporaries.

Having cited these names, it is needless to enlarge upon the dangers connected with undertakings of this nature, both to the Empire which they concern, and to the persons who venture to introduce them.

In Turkey, these dangers were of double force.

The general commotion of the higher classes must, in return, promote the desire for independence amongst the subdued nations. Difficulties of cpiite a new character could not but arise from these changes; and in fact, they did arise. The whole modern history of Turkey turns upon these difficulties; and to them, also, the movement in Servia must be attributed.

They at the same time exercised authority

It is related that a Russian prisoner, who was a Turk by birth, having acquired a tolerable knowledge of the Russian service, had trained a troop of renegades on the European system, originally for the gratification of the Grand Vizier. Subsequently the Sultan himself attended at their parade, for the purpose of witnessing how the infidels were accustomed to fight; and on reviewing the troop, was highly prepossessed in favour of the system, Omer was the name of this Ottoman Lefort, who for some time commanded the band of the Tufenkdschi, which he had formed.

Oilier Aga’s success confirmed the Sultan in his intention of introducing the European military exercise in the Turkish army; and, in the first instance, amongst the regular infantry, the Janissaries.

A Venetian narrative positively assures us, that in the year 1793 the subject was earnestly canvassed in the Divan.

What would have been the consequence of the execution of this project is evident.

The Janissaries considered their posts as liere- j ditary; they appeared in the ranks only on the days of receiving their pay; in the towns which they garrisoned they at the same time exercised authority, and carried on trade. To lead these troops back to the purpose for which they were originally established, and to subject them to the restraint of European discipline, was an undertaking not only of infinite difficulty, but also of the greatest political importance.

In an empire whose entire position was founded on conquest and forcible occupation, and depended directly upon the superiority of the army, every military change must necessarily be at the same time a political one.

And the Janissaries certainly formed an important link in the chain of the old Ottoman system, both for war and peace.

Moreover, in all other departments extensive changes were proposed. The great fiefs which had become hereditary were to be abolished, and their revenues, as they fell in on the death of the then occupiers, were to flow into the royal treasury, and be expended in the payment of other troops. The Pacha was no longer to be the lord of his province; his appointment was to continue only three years, and was not to be renewed unless he had exerted himself to give satisfaction to the people over whom he ruled. Another scheme was suggested, which, had it been carried into effect, would hgve given altogether a different form to the whole of this system. Its object was to abolish all farming of the taxes, and to introduce an administration of the revenues of the state by officers of the govern-ment.